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Proceedings of the Institute of

  • 1 Jansky, Karl Guthe

    [br]
    b. 22 October 1905 Norman, Oklahoma, USA
    d. 14 February 1950 Red Bank, New Jersey, USA
    [br]
    American radio engineer who discovered stellar radio emission.
    [br]
    Following graduation from the University of Wisconsin in 1928 and a year of postgraduate study, Jansky joined Bell Telephone Laboratories in New Jersey with the task of establishing the source of interference to telephone communications by radio. To this end he constructed a linear-directional short-wave antenna and eventually, in 1931, he concluded that the interference actually came from the stars, the major source being the constellation Sagittarius in the direction of the centre of the Milky Way. Although he continued to study the propagation of short radio waves and the nature of observed echoes, it was left to others to develop the science of radioastronomy and to use the creation of echoes for radiolocation. Although he received no scientific award for his discovery, Jansky's name is primarily honoured by its use as the unit of stellar radio-emission strength.
    [br]
    Bibliography
    1935, "Directional studies of atmospherics at high frequencies", Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers 23:1,158.
    1935, "A note on the sources of stellar interference", Proceedings of the Institute of Radio
    Engineers.
    1937, "Minimum noise levels obtained on short-wave radio receiving systems", Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers 25:1,517.
    1941, "Measurements of the delay and direction of arrival of echoes from nearby short-wave transmitters", Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers 29:322.
    Further Reading
    P.C.Mahon, 1975, BellLabs, Mission Communication. The Story of the Bell Labs.
    W.I.Sullivan (ed.), 1984, The Early Years of Radio-Astronomy: Reflections 50 Years after Jansky's Discovery, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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    Biographical history of technology > Jansky, Karl Guthe

  • 2 Pierce, John Robinson

    [br]
    b. 27 March 1910 Des Moines, Iowa, USA
    [br]
    American scientist and communications engineer said to be the "father" of communication satellites.
    [br]
    From his high-school days, Pierce showed an interest in science and in science fiction, writing under the pseudonym of J.J.Coupling. After gaining Bachelor's, Master's and PhD degrees at the California Institute of Technology (CalTech) in Pasadena in 1933, 1934 and 1936, respectively, Pierce joined the Bell Telephone Laboratories in New York City in 1936. There he worked on improvements to the travelling-wave tube, in which the passage of a beam of electrons through a helical transmission line at around 7 per cent of the speed of light was made to provide amplification at 860 MHz. He also devised a new form of electrostatically focused electron-multiplier which formed the basis of a sensitive detector of radiation. However, his main contribution to electronics at this time was the invention of the Pierce electron gun—a method of producing a high-density electron beam. In the Second World War he worked with McNally and Shepherd on the development of a low-voltage reflex klystron oscillator that was applied to military radar equipment.
    In 1952 he became Director of Electronic Research at the Bell Laboratories' establishment, Murray Hill, New Jersey. Within two years he had begun work on the possibility of round-the-world relay of signals by means of communication satellites, an idea anticipated in his early science-fiction writings (and by Arthur C. Clarke in 1945), and in 1955 he published a paper in which he examined various possibilities for communications satellites, including passive and active satellites in synchronous and non-synchronous orbits. In 1960 he used the National Aeronautics and Space Administration 30 m (98 1/2 ft) diameter, aluminium-coated Echo 1 balloon satellite to reflect telephone signals back to earth. The success of this led to the launching in 1962 of the first active relay satellite (Telstar), which weighed 170 lb (77 kg) and contained solar-powered rechargeable batteries, 1,000 transistors and a travelling-wave tube capable of amplifying the signal 10,000 times. With a maximum orbital height of 3,500 miles (5,600 km), this enabled a variety of signals, including full bandwidth television, to be relayed from the USA to large receiving dishes in Europe.
    From 1971 until his "retirement" in 1979, Pierce was Professor of Electrical Engineering at CalTech, after which he became Chief Technologist at the Jet Propulsion Laboratories, also in Pasadena, and Emeritus Professor of Engineering at Stanford University.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Morris N.Liebmann Memorial Award 1947; Edison Medal 1963; Medal of Honour 1975. Franklin Institute Stuart Ballantine Award 1960. National Medal of Science 1963. Danish Academy of Science Valdemar Poulsen Medal 1963. Marconi Award 1974. National Academy of Engineering Founders Award 1977. Japan Prize 1985. Arthur C.Clarke Award 1987. Honorary DEng Newark College of Engineering 1961. Honorary DSc Northwest University 1961, Yale 1963, Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute 1963. Editor, Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers 1954–5.
    Bibliography
    23 October 1956, US patent no. 2,768,328 (his development of the travelling-wave tube, filed on 5 November 1946).
    1947, with L.M.Field, "Travelling wave tubes", Proceedings of the Institute of Radio
    Engineers 35:108 (describes the pioneering improvements to the travelling-wave tube). 1947, "Theory of the beam-type travelling wave tube", Proceedings of the Institution of
    Radio Engineers 35:111. 1950, Travelling Wave Tubes.
    1956, Electronic Waves and Messages. 1962, Symbols, Signals and Noise.
    1981, An Introduction to Information Theory: Symbols, Signals and Noise: Dover Publications.
    1990, with M.A.Knoll, Signals: Revolution in Electronic Communication: W.H.Freeman.
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    Biographical history of technology > Pierce, John Robinson

  • 3 Goldmark, Peter Carl

    [br]
    b. 2 December 1906 Budapest, Hungary
    d. 7 December 1977 Westchester Co., New York, USA
    [br]
    Austro-Hungarian engineer who developed the first commercial colour television system and the long-playing record.
    [br]
    After education in Hungary and a period as an assistant at the Technische Hochschule, Berlin, Goldmark moved to England, where he joined Pye of Cambridge and worked on an experimental thirty-line television system using a cathode ray tube (CRT) for the display. In 1936 he moved to the USA to work at Columbia Broadcasting Laboratories. There, with monochrome television based on the CRT virtually a practical proposition, he devoted his efforts to finding a way of producing colour TV images: in 1940 he gave his first demonstration of a working system. There then followed a series of experimental field-sequential colour TV systems based on segmented red, green and blue colour wheels and drums, where the problem was to find an acceptable compromise between bandwidth, resolution, colour flicker and colour-image breakup. Eventually he arrived at a system using a colour wheel in combination with a CRT containing a panchromatic phosphor screen, with a scanned raster of 405 lines and a primary colour rate of 144 fields per second. Despite the fact that the receivers were bulky, gave relatively poor, dim pictures and used standards totally incompatible with the existing 525-line, sixty fields per second interlaced monochrome (black and white) system, in 1950 the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), anxious to encourage postwar revival of the industry, authorized the system for public broadcasting. Within eighteen months, however, bowing to pressure from the remainder of the industry, which had formed its own National Television Systems Committee (NTSC) to develop a much more satisfactory, fully compatible system based on the RCA three-gun shadowmask CRT, the FCC withdrew its approval.
    While all this was going on, Goldmark had also been working on ideas for overcoming the poor reproduction, noise quality, short playing-time (about four minutes) and limited robustness and life of the long-established 78 rpm 12 in. (30 cm) diameter shellac gramophone record. The recent availability of a new, more robust, plastic material, vinyl, which had a lower surface noise, enabled him in 1948 to reduce the groove width some three times to 0.003 in. (0.0762 mm), use a more lightly loaded synthetic sapphire stylus and crystal transducer with improved performance, and reduce the turntable speed to 33 1/3 rpm, to give thirty minutes of high-quality music per side. This successful development soon led to the availability of stereophonic recordings, based on the ideas of Alan Blumlein at EMI in the 1930s.
    In 1950 Goldmark became a vice-president of CBS, but he still found time to develop a scan conversion system for relaying television pictures to Earth from the Lunar Orbiter spacecraft. He also almost brought to the market a domestic electronic video recorder (EVR) system based on the thermal distortion of plastic film by separate luminance and coded colour signals, but this was overtaken by the video cassette recorder (VCR) system, which uses magnetic tape.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Morris N.Liebmann Award 1945. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Vladimir K. Zworykin Award 1961.
    Bibliography
    1951, with J.W.Christensen and J.J.Reeves, "Colour television. USA Standard", Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers 39: 1,288 (describes the development and standards for the short-lived field-sequential colour TV standard).
    1949, with R.Snepvangers and W.S.Bachman, "The Columbia long-playing microgroove recording system", Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers 37:923 (outlines the invention of the long-playing record).
    Further Reading
    E.W.Herold, 1976, "A history of colour television displays", Proceedings of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers 64:1,331.
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    Biographical history of technology > Goldmark, Peter Carl

  • 4 известие

    1. (вест) news (sg.), word, поет. tidings
    (съобщение) notice, message; information
    (уведомление) notification; advice
    не съм имал известие от него I have not heard from him, I have had no word from him
    последното известие, което получихме от него the last we heard from him
    2. (печ. издание) bulletin, proceedings
    ряд. gazette, journal
    Известия на Института по физиология Proceedings of the Institute of Physiology
    * * *
    извѐстие,
    ср., -я 1. ( вест) news (sg.), word, поет. tidings; ( съобщение) notice, message; information; ( уведомление) notification; advice; не съм имал \известиее от него I have not heard from him, I have had no word from him; последното \известиее, което получихме от него the last we heard from him;
    2. (полигр. издание) bulletin, proceedings; рядко gazette, journal.
    * * *
    announcement; notice; notice; notification; tidings
    * * *
    1. (вест) news (sg.), word, поет. tidings 2. (печ. издание) bulletin, proceedings 3. (съобщение) notice.message;information 4. (уведомление) notification;advice 5. Известия на Института no физиология Proceedings of the Institute of Physiology 6. Известия на Президиума на Народното събрание Journal of the Presidium of the National Assembly 7. не съм имал ИЗВЕСТИЕ от него I have not heard from him, I have had no word from him 8. последни известия по радиото the latest news over the radio 9. последното ИЗВЕСТИЕ, което получихме от него the last we heard from him 10. ряд. gazette, journal

    Български-английски речник > известие

  • 5 Armstrong, Edwin Howard

    [br]
    b. 18 December 1890 New York City, New York, USA
    d. 31 January 1954 New York City, New York, USA
    [br]
    American engineer who invented the regenerative and superheterodyne amplifiers and frequency modulation, all major contributions to radio communication and broadcasting.
    [br]
    Interested from childhood in anything mechanical, as a teenager Armstrong constructed a variety of wireless equipment in the attic of his parents' home, including spark-gap transmitters and receivers with iron-filing "coherer" detectors capable of producing weak Morse-code signals. In 1912, while still a student of engineering at Columbia University, he applied positive, i.e. regenerative, feedback to a Lee De Forest triode amplifier to just below the point of oscillation and obtained a gain of some 1,000 times, giving a receiver sensitivity very much greater than hitherto possible. Furthermore, by allowing the circuit to go into full oscillation he found he could generate stable continuous-waves, making possible the first reliable CW radio transmitter. Sadly, his claim to priority with this invention, for which he filed US patents in 1913, the year he graduated from Columbia, led to many years of litigation with De Forest, to whom the US Supreme Court finally, but unjustly, awarded the patent in 1934. The engineering world clearly did not agree with this decision, for the Institution of Radio Engineers did not revoke its previous award of a gold medal and he subsequently received the highest US scientific award, the Franklin Medal, for this discovery.
    During the First World War, after some time as an instructor at Columbia University, he joined the US Signal Corps laboratories in Paris, where in 1918 he invented the superheterodyne, a major contribution to radio-receiver design and for which he filed a patent in 1920. The principle of this circuit, which underlies virtually all modern radio, TV and radar reception, is that by using a local oscillator to convert, or "heterodyne", a wanted signal to a lower, fixed, "intermediate" frequency it is possible to obtain high amplification and selectivity without the need to "track" the tuning of numerous variable circuits.
    Returning to Columbia after the war and eventually becoming Professor of Electrical Engineering, he made a fortune from the sale of his patent rights and used part of his wealth to fund his own research into further problems in radio communication, particularly that of receiver noise. In 1933 he filed four patents covering the use of wide-band frequency modulation (FM) to achieve low-noise, high-fidelity sound broadcasting, but unable to interest RCA he eventually built a complete broadcast transmitter at his own expense in 1939 to prove the advantages of his system. Unfortunately, there followed another long battle to protect and exploit his patents, and exhausted and virtually ruined he took his own life in 1954, just as the use of FM became an established technique.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Institution of Radio Engineers Medal of Honour 1917. Franklin Medal 1937. IERE Edison Medal 1942. American Medal for Merit 1947.
    Bibliography
    1922, "Some recent developments in regenerative circuits", Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers 10:244.
    1924, "The superheterodyne. Its origin, developments and some recent improvements", Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers 12:549.
    1936, "A method of reducing disturbances in radio signalling by a system of frequency modulation", Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers 24:689.
    Further Reading
    L.Lessing, 1956, Man of High-Fidelity: Edwin Howard Armstrong, pbk 1969 (the only definitive biography).
    W.R.Maclaurin and R.J.Harman, 1949, Invention \& Innovation in the Radio Industry.
    J.R.Whitehead, 1950, Super-regenerative Receivers.
    A.N.Goldsmith, 1948, Frequency Modulation (for the background to the development of frequency modulation, in the form of a large collection of papers and an extensive bibliog raphy).
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    Biographical history of technology > Armstrong, Edwin Howard

  • 6 Marrison, Warren Alvin

    [br]
    b. 21 May 1896 Inverary, Canada
    d. 27 March 1980 Palo Verdes Estates, California, USA
    [br]
    Canadian (naturalized American) electrical engineer, pioneer of the quartz clock.
    [br]
    Marrison received his high-school education at Kingston Collegiate Institute, Ontario, and in 1914 he entered Queen's University in Kingston. He graduated in Engineering Physics in 1920, his college career having been interrupted by war service in the Royal Flying Corps. During his service in the Flying Corps he worked on radio, and when he returned to Kingston he established his own transmitter. This interest in radio was later to influence his professional life.
    In 1921 he entered Harvard University, where he obtained an MA, and shortly afterwards he joined the Western Electric Company in New York to work on the recording of sound on film. In 1925 he transferred to Western Electric's Bell Laboratory, where he began what was to become his life's work: the development of frequency standards for radio transmission. In 1922 Cady had used the elastic vibration of a quartz crystal to control the frequency of a valve oscillator, but at that time there was no way of counting and displaying the number of vibrations as the frequency was too high. In 1927 Marrison succeeded in dividing the frequency electronically until it was low enough to drive a synchronous motor. Although his purpose was to determine the frequency accurately by counting the number of vibrations that occurred in a given time, he had incidentally produced the first quartz-crystal -ontrolled clock. The results were sufficiently encouraging for him to build an improved version the following year, specifically as a time and frequency standard.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    British Horological Institute Gold Medal 1947. Clockmakers' Company Tompion Medal 1955.
    Bibliography
    1928, with J.W.Horton, "Precision measurement of frequency", Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers 16:137–54 (provides details of the original quartz clock, although it was not described as such).
    1930, "The crystal clock", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 16:496–507 (describes the second clock).
    Further Reading
    W.R.Topham, 1989, "Warren A.Marrison—pioneer of the quartz revolution", NAWCC Bulletin 31(2):126–34.
    J.D.Weaver, 1982, Electrical and Electronic Clocks and Watches, London (a technical assessment of his work on the quartz clock).
    DV

    Biographical history of technology > Marrison, Warren Alvin

  • 7 Bode, Hendrik Wade

    [br]
    b. 24 December 1905 Madison, Wisconsin, USA
    d. 21 June 1982 Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
    [br]
    American engineer who developed an extensive theoretical understanding of the behaviour of electronic circuits.
    [br]
    Bode received his bachelor's and master's degrees from Ohio State University in 1924 and 1926, respectively, and his PhD from Columbia University, New York, in 1935. In 1926 he joined the Bell Telephone Laboratories, where he made many theoretical contributions to the understanding of the behaviour of electronic circuits and, in particular, in conjunction with Harry Nyquist, of the conditions under which amplifier circuits become unstable.
    During the Second World War he worked on the design of gun control systems and afterwards was a member of a team that worked with Douglas Aircraft to develop the Nike anti-aircraft missile. A member of the Bell Laboratories Mathematical Research Group from 1929, he became its Director in 1952, and then Director of Physical Sciences. Finally he became Vice-President of the Laboratories, with responsibility for systems engineering, and a director of Bellcomm, a Bell company involved in the Moon-landing programme. When he retired from Bell in 1967, he became Professor of Systems Engineering at Harvard University.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Presidential Certificate of Merit 1946. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Edison Medal 1969.
    Bibliography
    1940, "Relation between attenuation and phase in feedback amplifier design", Bell System Technical Journal 19:421.
    1945, Network Analysis and Feedback Amplifier Design, New York: Van Nostrand.
    1950, with C.E.Shannon, "A simplified derivation of linear least squares smoothing and prediction theory", Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers 38:417.
    1961, "Feedback. The history of an idea", Proceedings of the Symposium on Active Networks and Feedback Systems, Brooklyn Polytechnic.
    1971, Synergy: Technical Integration and Technical Innovation in the Bell System Bell Laboratories, Bell Telephone Laboratories (provides background on his activities at Bell).
    Further Reading
    P.C.Mahon, 1975, Mission Communications, Bell Telephone Laboratories. See also Black, Harold Stephen; Shannon, Claude Elwood.
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    Biographical history of technology > Bode, Hendrik Wade

  • 8 Kompfner, Rudolph

    [br]
    b. 16 May 1909 Vienna, Austria
    d. 3 December 1977 Stanford, California, USA
    [br]
    Austrian (naturalized English in 1949, American in 1957) electrical engineer primarily known for his invention of the travelling-wave tube.
    [br]
    Kompfner obtained a degree in engineering from the Vienna Technische Hochschule in 1931 and qualified as a Diplom-Ingenieur in Architecture two years later. The following year, with a worsening political situation in Austria, he moved to England and became an architectural apprentice. In 1936 he became Managing Director of a building firm owned by a relative, but at the same time he was avidly studying physics and electronics. His first patent, for a television pick-up device, was filed in 1935 and granted in 1937, but was not in fact taken up. In June 1940 he was interned on the Isle of Man, but as a result of a paper previously sent by him to the Editor of Wireless Engineer he was released the following December and sent to join the group at Birmingham University working on centimetric radar. There he worked on klystrons, with little success, but as a result of the experience gained he eventually invented the travelling-wave tube (TWT), which was based on a helical transmission line. After disbandment of the Birmingham team, in 1946 Kompfner moved to the Clarendon Laboratory at Oxford and in 1947 he became a British subject. At the Clarendon Laboratory he met J.R. Pierce of Bell Laboratories, who worked out the theory of operation of the TWT. After gaining his DPhil at Oxford in 1951, Kompfner accepted a post as Principal Scientific Officer at Signals Electronic Research Laboratories, Baldock, but very soon after that he was invited by Pierce to work at Bell on microwave tubes. There, in 1952, he invented the backward-wave oscillator (BWO). He was appointed Director of Electronics Research in 1955 and Director of Communications Research in 1962, having become a US citizen in 1957. In 1958, with Pierce, he designed Echo 1, the first (passive) satellite, which was launched in August 1960. He was also involved with the development of Telstar, the first active communications satellite, which was launched in 1962. Following his retirement from Bell in 1973, he continued to pursue research, alternately at Stanford, California, and Oxford, England.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Physical Society Duddell Medal 1955. Franklin Institute Stuart Ballantine Medal 1960. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers David Sarnoff Award 1960. Member of the National Academy of Engineering 1966. Member of the National Academy of Science 1968. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Medal of Honour 1973. City of Philadelphia John Scott Award 1974. Roentgen Society Silvanus Thompson Medal 1974. President's National medal of Science 1974. Honorary doctorates Vienna 1965, Oxford 1969.
    Bibliography
    1944, "Velocity modulated beams", Wireless Engineer 17:262.
    1942, "Transit time phenomena in electronic tubes", Wireless Engineer 19:3. 1942, "Velocity modulating grids", Wireless Engineer 19:158.
    1946, "The travelling-wave tube", Wireless Engineer 42:369.
    1964, The Invention of the TWT, San Francisco: San Francisco Press.
    Further Reading
    J.R.Pierce, 1992, "History of the microwave tube art", Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers: 980.
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    Biographical history of technology > Kompfner, Rudolph

  • 9 Reis, (Johann) Philipp

    SUBJECT AREA: Telecommunications
    [br]
    b. 7 January 1834 Geinherusen, Hesse-Kassel, Germany
    d. 14 January 1874 Friedrichsdorf, Germany
    [br]
    German schoolteacher and inventor who constructed an early form of telephone.
    [br]
    Reis entered the Garniers Institute in Friedrichsdorf in 1844 and then the Hassels Institute in Frankfurt. There he developed an interest in science, but on leaving school in 1850 he was apprenticed to the colour trade by his uncle. This involved study at the trade school and Dr Poppe's Institute in Frankfurt; while there he joined the Frankfurt Physical Society. Following military service in 1855 he studied to be a teacher. After his graduation he obtained a post at Garniers, where he began to pursue experiments with electricity and the development of hearing aids. In 1859 he sent a paper on the radiation of electricity to the editor of Annalen der Physik, but this was rejected, as was a later submission. Undeterred, he continued his experiments and by 1861 he had designed several instruments for the transmission of sound. The transmitter consisted of a membrane on which rested a metal strip that made contact with a metal point and completed an electrical circuit under the action of sound. The receiver consisted of an iron needle surrounded by a coil and resting on a sounding box, the operation probably being achieved by magnetostriction. The invention, which he described in a lecture to the Frankfurt Physical Society on 26 October 1861 and in a published paper, could produce tones and probably also speech, but was largely rejected by the scientific fraternity. The claim to produce speech was discounted in subsequent court cases that upheld the patents of Alexander Bell.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    On 8 December 1878 a monument to Reis was erected in the Friedrichsdorf Cemetery by the Physical Society of Frankfurt.
    Bibliography
    1860–1, "Über Telephone durch den galvani-schen Strom", Jahresbericht der Physikalische 57.
    Further Reading
    J.Munro, 1891, Heroes of the Telegraph.
    Silvanus P.Thompson, 1883, Philipp Reis. Inventor of the Telephone.
    B.B.Bauer, 1962, "A century of the microphone", Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers: 720.
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    Biographical history of technology > Reis, (Johann) Philipp

  • 10 Taylor, Albert Hoyt

    [br]
    b. 1 January 1874 Chicago, Illinois, USA
    d. 11 December 1961 Claremont, California, USA
    [br]
    American radio engineer whose work on radio-detection helped lay the foundations for radar.
    [br]
    Taylor gained his degree in engineering from Northwest University, Evanston, Illinois, then spent a time at the University of Gottingen. On his return to the USA he taught successively at Michigan State University, at Lansing, and at the universities of Wisconsin at Madison and North Dakota at Grand Forks. From 1923 until 1945 he supervised the Radio Division at the US Naval Research Laboratories. There he carried out studies of short-wave radio propagation and confirmed Heaviside's 1925 theory of the reflection characteristics of the ionosphere. In the 1920s and 1930s he investigated radio echoes, and in 1933, with L.C.Young and L.A.Hyland, he filed a patent for a system of radio-detection that contributed to the subsequent development of radar.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Morris N.Liebmann Memorial Award 1927. President, Institute of Radio Engineers 1929. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Medal of Honour 1942.
    Bibliography
    1926, with E.O.Hulbert, "The propagation of radio waves over the earth", Physical Review 27:189.
    1936, "The measurement of RF power", Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers 24: 1,342.
    Further Reading
    S.S.Swords, 1986, Technical History of the Beginnings of Radar, London: Peter Peregrinus.
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    Biographical history of technology > Taylor, Albert Hoyt

  • 11 Burks, Arthur Walter

    [br]
    b. 13 October 1915 Duluth, Minnesota, USA
    [br]
    American engineer involved in the development of the ENIAC and Whirlwind computers.
    [br]
    After obtaining his AB degree from De Pere University, Wisconsin (1937), and his AM and PhD from the University of Michigan (1938 and 1941, respectively), Burks carried out research at the Moore School of Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, during the Second World War, and at the same time taught philosophy in another department. There, with Herman Goldstine, he was involved in the construction of ENIAC (the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer).
    In 1946 he took a post as Assistant Professor of Engineering at Michigan University, and subsequently became Associate Professor (1948) and Full Professor (1954). Between 1946 and 1948 he was also associated with the computer activities of John von Neumann at the Institute of Advanced Studies, Princeton, and was involved in the development of the Whirlwind I computer (the first stored-program computer) by Jay Forrester at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. From 1948 until 1954 he was a consultant for the Burroughs Corporation and also contributed to the Oak Ridge computer ORACLE. He was Chairman of the Michigan University Department of Communications Science in 1967–71 and at various times was Visiting Professor at Harvard University and the universities of Illinois and Stanford. In 1975 he became Editor of the Journal of Computer and System Sciences.
    [br]
    Bibliography
    1946. "Super electronic computing machine", Electronics Industry 62.
    1947. "Electronic computing circuits of the ENIAC", Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers 35:756.
    1980, "From ENIAC to the stored program computer. Two revolutions in computing", in N.Metropolis, J.Hewlett \& G.-C.Rota (eds), A History of Computing in the 20th Century, London: Academic Press.
    Further Reading
    J.W.Corlada, 1987, Historical Dictionary of Data Processing (provides further details of Burk's career).
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    Biographical history of technology > Burks, Arthur Walter

  • 12 Forrester, Jay Wright

    [br]
    b. 14 July 1918 Anselmo, Nebraska, USA
    [br]
    American electrical engineer and management expert who invented the magnetic-core random access memory used in most early digital computers.
    [br]
    Born on a cattle ranch, Forrester obtained a BSc in electrical engineering at the University of Nebraska in 1939 and his MSc at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in Cambridge, Massachusetts, where he remained to teach and carry out research. Becoming interested in computing, he established the Digital Computer Laboratory at MIT in 1945 and became involved in the construction of Whirlwind I, an early general-purpose computer completed in March 1951 and used for flight-simulation by the US Army Air Force. Finding the linear memories then available for storing data a major limiting factor in the speed at which computers were able to operate, he developed a three-dimensional store based on the binary switching of the state of small magnetic cores that could be addressed and switched by a matrix of wires carrying pulses of current. The machine used parallel synchronous fixed-point computing, with fifteen binary digits and a plus sign, i.e. 16 bits in all, and contained 5,000 vacuum tubes, eleven semiconductors and a 2 MHz clock for the arithmetic logic unit. It occupied a two-storey building and consumed 150kW of electricity. From his experience with the development and use of computers, he came to realize their great potential for the simulation and modelling of real situations and hence for the solution of a variety of management problems, using data communications and the technique now known as interactive graphics. His later career was therefore in this field, first at the MIT Lincoln Laboratory in Lexington, Massachusetts (1951) and subsequently (from 1956) as Professor at the Sloan School of Management at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    National Academy of Engineering 1967. George Washington University Inventor of the Year 1968. Danish Academy of Science Valdemar Poulsen Gold Medal 1969. Systems, Man and Cybernetics Society Award for Outstanding Accomplishments 1972. Computer Society Pioneer Award 1972. Institution of Electrical Engineers Medal of Honour 1972. National Inventors Hall of Fame 1979. Magnetics Society Information Storage Award 1988. Honorary DEng Nebraska 1954, Newark College of Engineering 1971, Notre Dame University 1974. Honorary DSc Boston 1969, Union College 1973. Honorary DPolSci Mannheim University, Germany. Honorary DHumLett, State University of New York 1988.
    Bibliography
    1951, "Data storage in three dimensions using magnetic cores", Journal of Applied Physics 20: 44 (his first description of the core store).
    Publications on management include: 1961, Industrial Dynamics, Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press; 1968, Principles of Systems, 1971, Urban Dynamics, 1980, with A.A.Legasto \& J.M.Lyneis, System Dynamics, North Holland. 1975, Collected Papers, Cambridge, Mass.: MIT.
    Further Reading
    K.C.Redmond \& T.M.Smith, Project Whirlwind, the History of a Pioneer Computer (provides details of the Whirlwind computer).
    H.H.Goldstine, 1993, The Computer from Pascal to von Neumann, Princeton University Press (for more general background to the development of computers).
    Serrell et al., 1962, "Evolution of computing machines", Proceedings of the Institute of
    Radio Engineers 1,047.
    M.R.Williams, 1975, History of Computing Technology, London: Prentice-Hall.
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    Biographical history of technology > Forrester, Jay Wright

  • 13 Pierce, George Washington

    [br]
    b. 11 January 1872 Austin, Texas, USA
    d. 25 August 1956 Franklin, New Hampshire, USA
    [br]
    American physicist who made various contributions to electronics, particularly crystal oscillators.
    [br]
    Pierce entered the University of Texas in 1890, gaining his BSc in physics in 1893 and his MSc in 1894. After teaching and doing various odd jobs, in 1897 he obtained a scholarship to Harvard, obtaining his PhD three years later. Following a period at the University of Leipzig, he returned to the USA in 1903 to join the teaching staff at Harvard, where he soon established new courses and began to gain a reputation as a pioneer in electronics, including the study of crystal rectifiers and publication of a textbook on wireless telegraphy. In 1912, with Kennelly, he conceived the idea of motional impedance. The same year he was made first Director of Harvard's Cruft High- Tension Electrical Laboratory, a post he held until his retirement. In 1917 he was appointed Professor of Physics, and for the remainder of the First World War he was also involved in work on submarine detection at the US Naval Base in New London. In 1921 he was appointed Rumford Professor of Physics and became interested in the work of Walter Cady on crystal-controlled circuits. As a result of this he patented the Pierce crystal oscillator in 1924. Having discovered the magnetostriction property of nickel and nichrome, in 1928 he also invented the magnetostriction oscillator. The mercury-vapour discharge lamp is also said to have been his idea. He became Gordon McKay Professor of Physics and Communications in 1935 and retired from Harvard in 1940, but he remained active for the rest of his life with the study of sound generation by birds and insects.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    President, Institute of Radio Engineers 1918–19. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Medal of Honour 1929.
    Bibliography
    1910, Principles of Wireless Telegraphy.
    1914, US patent no. 1,450,749 (a mercury vapour tube control circuit). 1919, Electrical Oscillations and Electric Waves.
    1922, "The piezo-electric Resonator", Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers 10:83.
    Further Reading
    F.E.Terman, 1943, Radio Engineers'Handbook, New York: McGraw-Hill (for details of piezo-electric crystal oscillator circuits).
    KF

    Biographical history of technology > Pierce, George Washington

  • 14 Varian, Russell Harrison

    [br]
    b. 24 April 1898 Washington, DC, USA
    d. 28 July 1959 Juneau, Alaska, USA
    [br]
    American physicist who, with his brother Sigurd Varian and others, developed the klystron.
    [br]
    After attending schools in Palo Alto and Halcyon, Russell Varian went to Stanford University, gaining his BA in 1925 and his MA in 1927 despite illness and being dyslexic. His family being in need of financial help, he first worked for six months for Bush Electric in San Francisco and then for an oil company in Texas, returning to San Francisco in 1930 to join Farnsworth's Television Laboratory. After a move to Philadelphia, in 1933 the laboratory closed and Russell tried to take up a PhD course at Stanford but was rejected, so he trained as a teacher. However, although he did some teaching at Stanford it was not to be his career, for in 1935 he joined his brothers Sigurd and Eric in the setting up of a home laboratory.
    There, with William Hansen, a former colleague of Russell's at Stanford, they worked on the development of microwave oscillators, based on some of the latter's ideas. By 1937 they had made sufficient progress on an electron velocity-bunching tube, which they called the klystron, to obtain an agreement with the university to provide laboratory facilities in return for a share of any proceeds. By August that year they were able to produce continuous power at a wavelength of 13 cm. Clearly needing greater resources to develop and manufacture the tube, and with a possible war looming, a deal was struck with the Sperry Gyroscope Company to finance the work, which was transferred to the East Coast.
    In 1946, after the death of his first wife, Russell returned to Palo Alto, and in 1948 the brothers and Hansen founded Varian Associates to make microwave tubes for transmitters and linear accelerators and nuclear magnetic-resonance detectors. Subsequent research also resulted in the development of a satellite-borne magnetometer for measuring the earth's magnetic field.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Honorary DSc Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute 1943. Franklin Institute Medal.
    Bibliography
    1939, with S.F.Varian, "High frequency oscillator and amplifier", Journal of Applied Physics 10:321 (describes the klystron).
    Further Reading
    J.R.Pierce, 1962, "History of the microwave tube art", Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers 979 (provides background to development of the klystron).
    D.Varian, 1983, The Inventor and the Pilot (biographies of the brothers).
    KF

    Biographical history of technology > Varian, Russell Harrison

  • 15 Zworykin, Vladimir Kosma

    [br]
    b. 30 July 1889 Mourum (near Moscow), Russia
    d. 29 July 1982 New York City, New York, USA
    [br]
    Russian (naturalized American 1924) television pioneer who invented the iconoscope and kinescope television camera and display tubes.
    [br]
    Zworykin studied engineering at the Institute of Technology in St Petersburg under Boris Rosing, assisting the latter with his early experiments with television. After graduating in 1912, he spent a time doing X-ray research at the Collège de France in Paris before returning to join the Russian Marconi Company, initially in St Petersburg and then in Moscow. On the outbreak of war in 1917, he joined the Russian Army Signal Corps, but when the war ended in the chaos of the Revolution he set off on his travels, ending up in the USA, where he joined the Westinghouse Corporation. There, in 1923, he filed the first of many patents for a complete system of electronic television, including one for an all-electronic scanning pick-up tube that he called the iconoscope. In 1924 he became a US citizen and invented the kinescope, a hard-vacuum cathode ray tube (CRT) for the display of television pictures, and the following year he patented a camera tube with a mosaic of photoelectric elements and gave a demonstration of still-picture TV. In 1926 he was awarded a PhD by the University of Pittsburgh and in 1928 he was granted a patent for a colour TV system.
    In 1929 he embarked on a tour of Europe to study TV developments; on his return he joined the Radio Corporation of America (RCA) as Director of the Electronics Research Group, first at Camden and then Princeton, New Jersey. Securing a budget to develop an improved CRT picture tube, he soon produced a kinescope with a hard vacuum, an indirectly heated cathode, a signal-modulation grid and electrostatic focusing. In 1933 an improved iconoscope camera tube was produced, and under his direction RCA went on to produce other improved types of camera tube, including the image iconoscope, the orthicon and image orthicon and the vidicon. The secondary-emission effect used in many of these tubes was also used in a scintillation radiation counter. In 1941 he was responsible for the development of the first industrial electron microscope, but for most of the Second World War he directed work concerned with radar, aircraft fire-control and TV-guided missiles.
    After the war he worked for a time on high-speed memories and medical electronics, becoming Vice-President and Technical Consultant in 1947. He "retired" from RCA and was made an honorary vice-president in 1954, but he retained an office and continued to work there almost up until his death; he also served as Director of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research from 1954 until 1962.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Zworykin received some twenty-seven awards and honours for his contributions to television engineering and medical electronics, including the Institution of Electrical Engineers Faraday Medal 1965; US Medal of Science 1966; and the US National Hall of Fame 1977.
    Bibliography
    29 December 1923, US patent no. 2,141, 059 (the original iconoscope patent; finally granted in December 1938!).
    13 July 1925, US patent no. 1,691, 324 (colour television system).
    1930, with D.E.Wilson, Photocells and Their Applications, New York: Wiley. 1934, "The iconoscope. A modern version of the electric eye". Proceedings of the
    Institute of Radio Engineers 22:16.
    1946, Electron Optics and the Electron Microscope.
    1940, with G.A.Morton, Television; revised 1954.
    Further Reading
    J.H.Udelson, 1982, The Great Television Race: History of the Television Industry 1925– 41: University of Alabama Press.
    KF

    Biographical history of technology > Zworykin, Vladimir Kosma

  • 16 Varian, Sigurd Fergus

    [br]
    b. 4 May 1901 Syracuse, New York, USA
    d. 18 October 1961 Puerto Vallarta, Mexico
    [br]
    American electrical engineer who, with his brother Russell, developed the klystron microwave tube.
    [br]
    Sigurd Varian left school in 1920 and entered California Polytechnic to study engineering, but he soon dropped out and trained as an electrician, taking up employment with the Southern Californian Edison Company. As a result of working on an airfield he developed an interest in flying. He took lessons and in 1924 bought a First World War biplane and became a "barnstorming" pilot, giving flying displays and joy-rides, etc., to earn his living. Beset by several prolonged bouts of tuberculosis, he used his periods of recuperation to study aerial navigation and to devise navigation instruments. In 1929 he took a permanent job as a pilot for Pan American in Mexico, but in 1935 he went to California to work on electron tubes with his younger brother, Eric. They were soon joined by Russell, and with William Hansen they developed the klystron. For details of this part of his life and the founding of Varian Associates, see under Russell Varian. In later years, his health increasingly poor, he lived in semi-retirement in Mexico, where he died in a plane crash while flying himself home.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Franklin Institute Medal.
    Bibliography
    1939, with R.S.Varian, "High frequency oscillator and amplifier", Journal of Applied Physics 10:321 (describes the klystron).
    Further Reading
    J.R.Pierce, 1962, "History of the microwave tube art", Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers 979 (provides background to development of the klystron).
    D.Varian, 1983, The Inventor and the Pilot (biographies of the brothers).
    KF

    Biographical history of technology > Varian, Sigurd Fergus

  • 17 Braun, Karl Ferdinand

    [br]
    b. 6 June 1850 Fulda, Hesse, Germany
    d. 20 April 1918 New York City, New York, USA
    [br]
    German physicist who shared with Marconi the 1909 Nobel Prize for Physics for developments in wireless telegraphy; inventor of the cathode ray oscilloscope.
    [br]
    After obtaining degrees from the universities of Marburg and Berlin (PhD) and spending a short time as Headmaster of the Thomas School in Berlin, Braun successively held professorships in theoretical physics at the universities of Marburg (1876), Strasbourg (1880) and Karlsruhe (1883) before becoming Professor of Experimental Physics at Tübingen in 1885 and Director and Professor of Physics at Strasbourg in 1895.
    During this time he devised experimental apparatus to determine the dielectric constant of rock salt and developed the Braun high-tension electrometer. He also discovered that certain mineral sulphide crystals would only conduct electricity in one direction, a rectification effect that made it possible to detect and demodulate radio signals in a more reliable manner than was possible with the coherer. Primarily, however, he was concerned with improving Marconi's radio transmitter to increase its broadcasting range. By using a transmitter circuit comprising a capacitor and a spark-gap, coupled to an aerial without a spark-gap, he was able to obtain much greater oscillatory currents in the latter, and by tuning the transmitter so that the oscillations occupied only a narrow frequency band he reduced the interference with other transmitters. Other achievements include the development of a directional aerial and the first practical wavemeter, and the measurement in Strasbourg of the strength of radio waves received from the Eiffel Tower transmitter in Paris. For all this work he subsequently shared with Marconi the 1909 Nobel Prize for Physics.
    Around 1895 he carried out experiments using a torsion balance in order to measure the universal gravitational constant, g, but the work for which he is probably best known is the addition of deflecting plates and a fluorescent screen to the Crooke's tube in 1897 in order to study the characteristics of high-frequency currents. The oscilloscope, as it was called, was not only the basis of a now widely used and highly versatile test instrument but was the forerunner of the cathode ray tube, or CRT, used for the display of radar and television images.
    At the beginning of the First World War, while in New York to testify in a patent suit, he was trapped by the entry of the USA into the war and remained in Brooklyn with his son until his death.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Nobel Prize for Physics (jointly with Marconi) 1909.
    Bibliography
    1874, "Assymetrical conduction of certain metal sulphides", Pogg. Annal. 153:556 (provides an account of the discovery of the crystal rectifier).
    1897, "On a method for the demonstration and study of currents varying with time", Wiedemann's Annalen 60:552 (his description of the cathode ray oscilloscope as a measuring tool).
    Further Reading
    K.Schlesinger \& E.G.Ramberg, 1962, "Beamdeflection and photo-devices", Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers 50, 991.
    KF

    Biographical history of technology > Braun, Karl Ferdinand

  • 18 Flechsig, W.

    [br]
    fl. c.1938 Germany
    [br]
    German engineer notable for early patents that foreshadowed the development of the shadowmask colour cathode ray tube.
    [br]
    In 1938, whilst working for a German electrical company, Flechsig filed a patent in which he described the use of an array of stretched parallel wires to control the landing of either one or three electron beams on separate red, green and blue phosphor stripes within a single cathode ray tube. Whilst the single-beam arrangement required subsidiary deflection to alternate the beam landing angle, the three-beam version effectively used the wires to "mask" the landing of the electron beams so that each one only illuminated the relevant colour phosphor stripes. Although not developed at the time, the concept anticipated the subsequent invention of the shadowmask tube by RCA in the early 1950s and, even more closely, the development of the Sony Trinitron some years later.
    [br]
    Bibliography
    1938, German patent no. 736, 575.
    1941, French patent no. 866, 065.
    Further Reading
    E.W.Herold, 1976, "A history of colour television displays", Proceedings of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers 64:1,331.
    K.G.Freeman, "The history of colour CRTs. A personal view", International Conference on the History of Television, Institution of Electrical Engineers Publication no. 271, p.
    38.
    KF

    Biographical history of technology > Flechsig, W.

  • 19 Gray, Elisha

    SUBJECT AREA: Telecommunications
    [br]
    b. 2 August 1835 Barnesville, Ohio, USA
    d. 21 January 1901 Newtonville, Massachusetts, USA
    [br]
    American inventor who was only just beaten by Alexander Graham Bell in the race for the first telephone patent.
    [br]
    Initially apprenticed to a carpenter, Gray soon showed an interest in chemistry, but he eventually studied electrical engineering at Oberlin College, Oberlin, Ohio, in the late 1850s. In 1869 he founded the Western Electric Manufacturing Company, where he devised an electric-needle annunciator for use in hotels and lifts and carried out experimental work aimed at the development of a means of distant-speech communication. After successful realization of a liquid-based microphone and public demonstrations of a receiver using a metal diaphragm, on 14 February 1876 he deposited a caveat of intention to file a patent claim within three months for the invention of the telephone, only to learn that Alexander Graham Bell had filed a full patent claim only three hours earlier on the same day. Following litigation, the patent was eventually awarded to Bell. In 1880 Gray was appointed Professor of Dynamic Electricity at Oberlin College, but he appears to have retained his business interests since in 1891 he was both a member of the firm of Gray and Barton and electrician to his old firm, Western Electric. Subsequently, in 1895, he invented the TelAutograph, a form of remote-writing telegraph, or facsimile, capable of operating over short distances. The system used a transmitter in which the x and y movements of a writing stylus were coupled to a pair of variable resistors. In turn, these were connected by two telegraph wires to a pair of receiving coils, which were used to control the position of a pen on a sheet of paper, thus replicating the movement of the original stylus.
    [br]
    Bibliography
    1878, Experimental Research in Electro-Harmonic Telegraph and Telephony, 1867–76.
    Further Reading
    J.Munro, 1891, Heroes of the Telegraph.
    D.A.Hounshill, 1975, "Elisha Gray and the telephone. On the disadvantage of being an expert", Technology and Culture 16:133.
    —1976, "Bell and Gray. Contrast in style, politics and etiquette", Proceedings of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers 64:1,305.
    International Telecommunications Union, 1965, From Semaphore to Satellite, Geneva.
    KF

    Biographical history of technology > Gray, Elisha

  • 20 Page, Charles Grafton

    [br]
    b. 25 January 1812 Salem, Massachusetts, USA
    d. 5 May 1868 Washington, DC, USA
    [br]
    American scientist and inventor of electric motors.
    [br]
    Page graduated from Harvard in 1832 and subsequently attended Boston Medical School. He began to practise in Salem and also engaged in experimental research in electricity, discovering the improvement effected by substituting bundles of iron wire for solid bars in induction coils. He also created a device which he termed a Dynamic Multiplier, the prototype of the auto-transformer. Following a period in medical practice in Virginia, in 1841 he became one of the first two principal examiners in the United States Patent Office. He also held the Chair of Chemistry and Pharmacy at Columbian College, later George Washington University, between 1844 and 1849.
    A prolific inventor, Page completed several large electric motors in which reciprocating action was converted to rotary motion, and invested an extravagant sum of public money in a foredoomed effort to develop a 10-ton electric locomotive powered by primary batteries. This was unsuccessfully demonstrated in April 1851 on the Washington-Baltimore railway and seriously damaged his reputation. Page approached Thomas Davenport with an offer of partnership, but Davenport refused.
    After leaving the Patent Office in 1852 he became a patentee himself and advocated the reform of the patent procedures. Page returned to the Patent Office in 1861, and later persuaded Congress to pass a special Act permitting him to patent the induction coil. This was the cause, after his death, of protracted and widely publicized litigation.
    [br]
    Bibliography
    1867, History of Induction: The American Claim to the Induction Coil and its
    Electrostatic Developments, Washington, DC.
    Further Reading
    R.C.Post, 1976, Physics, Patents and Politics, New York (a biography which treats Page as a focal point for studying the American patent system).
    ——1976, "Stray sparks from the induction coil: the Volta prize and the Page patent", Proceedings of the Institute of Electrical Engineers 64: 1,279–86 (a short account).
    W.J.King, 1962, The Development of Electrical Technology in the 19th Century, Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, Paper 28.
    GW

    Biographical history of technology > Page, Charles Grafton

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